In addition, the methods used in the different national and regional assessments vary greatly and are far from being standardized. For more information about PLOS Subject Areas, click In a second cluster of countriesLaos, Cambodia and Myanmarshifting cultivation areas have decreased drastically since 2000. - Indicate how you expect the shifting cultivation occurrences to change in the future for the following periods (no change, expansion, decline, disappearance): 20152030; 20302060; 20602090. Accordingly, they emphasized that the need for global data on annual global gridded land-use transitions from past-to-future presents a large and underdetermined problem [2]. This paper presents the causes and consequences of shifting cultivation and its potential land use alternatives. Data Availability: All relevant data are within the paper and its Supporting Information files. Corrections? 5 Causes of Deforestation | One Tree Planted Sustainable Agriculture vs. Industrial Agriculture - FoodPrint Mexico and Brazil) likely to see a fairly rapid decrease and disappearance. Based on existing data and knowledge, we have made a first attempt at estimating possible future trends in the distribution of shifting cultivation until 2090. It ensures the forest will recover. Taking into consideration the stratification criteria, 328 one-degree cells were randomly selected to be validated. Laos, Vietnam) over the past 15 to 25 years is not reflected in this comparison. For Central and South America, the survey shows a mixed picture, with some areas being quite stable or even likely to experience expansion in the near future, and other areas (e.g. Formal analysis, Maps created in QGIS 2.16. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184479.g001. After analyzing the spatially differentiated changes between the status in the 1960s to 1970s as shown in the Butler map and our data for 2010 (Fig 6), we combined them with data from our expert survey about changes in areas under shifting cultivation between 1970 to 2000 and 2000 to 2010 as well as with information from the literature. The research presented here contributes to the objectives of the Global Land Programme (glp.earth). India, Bangladesh), comparison of the maps (Fig 6) and the survey responses point to similar trends. 1,063 likes, 4 comments - Simran IAS Academy (@simranias) on Instagram: "#Learnbymaps is here to explain you about #Slash and #Burn Cultivation Slash and burn #agricultu." Simran IAS Academy on Instagram: "#Learnbymaps is here to explain you about #Slash and #Burn Cultivation Slash and burn #agriculture is also called the shifting cultivation. Environment; What you can do right now to advocate for the planet. (2017) A global view of shifting cultivation: Recent, current, and future extent. Climate Impacts on Agriculture and Food Supply - US EPA Validation, Yes Unlike intensive agriculture, sustainable farming has a great potential for benefiting the environment and preserving natural resources. Shining cultivation fields are generally used not more than two years at a lime, after which . However, the occurrence of shifting cultivation within most of the individual one-degree cells is very low, meaning that it is a minor component of the overall landscape. The visualization here shows a summary of some of the main global impacts: Food production accounts for over a quarter (26%) of global greenhouse gas emissions. These Farmers Slash and Burn ForestsBut in a Good Way Globally, sixty-two per cent of the investigated one-degree cells showed signs of shifting cultivation, with surprisingly similar shares across the 3 regions, ranging between 59 and 65% (Table 1) In absolute terms, the majority of cells with shifting cultivation are located in the Americas and Africa (almost 78%). Meanwhile, the area under shifting cultivation has decreased by 71.22% from 1997 and forest cover has decreased by 4.41% during the period. Moreover, even if GFC deforestation data processing using the Google Earth engine might enable this automation in the future, the visual approach will still be highly valuable for validating the robustness of automated approaches. Yet most of the common farming techniques employed in . - Vietnam and Laos: Shifting cultivation is likely to be greatly reduced by 2030 and completely gone by 2060. Department of Geosciences and Natural Resource Management, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen K, Denmark, Roles Centre for Development and Environment, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland, Roles Agriculture CBSE Class 10 SST Geography Extra Questions Please refer to the appropriate style manual or other sources if you have any questions. Citation: Heinimann A, Mertz O, Frolking S, Egelund Christensen A, Hurni K, Sedano F, et al. But information about such landscapes is urgently needed to improve the . The plot is left alone for longer than it was cultivated, sometimes up to 10 or more years, to allow wild vegetation to grow on the plot of land. Given that biomass regrows very quickly in the humid tropics, the GFC data set treats large shares of a field cleared for shifting cultivation and kept fallow for a relatively short period as deforestation. The downed vegetation, or "slash", is then left to dry, usually right before the rainiest part of the year.Then, the biomass is burned, resulting in a nutrient-rich . 5 Ways Climate Change Impacts Forests. Bing and Google Earth) were used. Writing review & editing, Affiliation As growing only one kind of plant on the same piece of farmland depletes and exhausts the soil by depriving it of the biodiversity, farmers tend to artificially boost the fertility of their impacted fields by applying chemical fertilizers. Effects | Facts - Climate Change: Vital Signs of the Planet The difference between the Butler mapwhich is presumably based on studies dating from the 1960s and 1970s [13]and our own current investigation around 2010 is displayed in Fig 6. It coincided with the end of the last ice age and the beginning of the. decadal), the areas newly classified as having shifting cultivation (blue in Fig 6) should be added to the original Butler map, thereby producing an updated estimated extent of shifting cultivation for this earlier period. Visual interpretation has well-known limitations in terms of subjectivity and potentially limited reproducibility [29], but there are two main reasons why a visual approach has been chosen: Firstly, while a number of approaches has recently been developed to detect shifting cultivation based on automated approaches at the regional and national level using remote sensing data (e.g. Depletion of Nutrients The primitive style of framing like slash and burn decreases the organic matter from the soil. Agriculture and Its Impact on LandUse, Environment, and Ecosystem [1] used the Global Land Cover 2000 (GLC2000) data set [53] and the Map of the Ecosystems for Central America [54] to estimate the extent of shifting cultivation at the global scale. Trends in humid tropical Africa vary widely. Climate Change. In order to assess both past and future land use transitions in areas currently under shifting cultivation, we identified experts with recent knowledge of these areas by searching the Web of Science (All Databases) for papers published between 2005 and 2015 whose title contained shifting cultivation or similar terms. 10 Sustainable Farming Methods and Practices | Greentumble Fig 1 illustrates the procedure we used for this visual inspection. From this, we excluded regions where shifting cultivation can safely be assumed to not have been present for centuries (e.g. For this reason, the known widespread decrease in the occurrence of shifting cultivation in Southeast Asia (e.g. Methodology, There's no doubt about it: the best thing we can do to fight climate change is keep forests standing. The Data behind Deforestation Causes of Deforestation How Climate Change Will Affect Plants - State of the Planet Flooding, changing seasons and other weather changes impact the growing seasons of specific crops and could cause more and more damage to outdoor crops, driving some food production indoors and spiking prices at the same time. No, Is the Subject Area "Africa" applicable to this article? Yucatan Peninsula [66], northern South America (e.g. As our aim was to provide, in a timely manner, a global-scale overview of landscapes showing signs of shifting cultivation for use in global land userelated earth system modeling scenarios [27], we worked at an aggregated level using one-degree cells, which corresponds approximately to the scale of current earth system model analyses. The aforementioned map produced by Butler [13] (Fig 4) is a hand-drawn representation of areas where both shifting and non-shifting primitive subsistence agriculture exists, as Butler put it. Furthermore we wish to express our gratitude to the two reviewers as well as the editor for the very useful comments and inputs. South America shows mixed trends: Areas under shifting cultivation have clearly decreased in the southern Brazilian Amazon, whereas survey responses indicate that they are expanding in other parts of the Brazilian Amazon and in Peru. Areas drenched by irrigation can become waterlogged, creating soil conditions that poison plant roots through anaerobic decomposition. A review focusing on Southeast Asia found little aggregate information about the areas under shifting cultivation there [10], and we were unable to find information about shifting cultivation areas in Africa and Latin America. northern Zambia and in the Democratic Republic of the Congo), parts of southeastern Africa (e.g. Methodology, Shifting cultivation has often been blamed as the main cause of deforestation and forest degradation [911,14,15], but evidence is growing that when shifting cultivation is discontinued, it is often replaced by intensified land uses with higher environmental impacts [16,17]. All answers were anonymous and cannot be traced back to the individual expert. No source is reported for the map, but most likely it builds on a number of regional studies that was carried out between the 1940s and the 1970s, as well as general knowledge of where shifting cultivation and other extensive smallholder farming systems were found. 2.2). The search was performed in September 2015 and generated 316 results. Click through the PLOS taxonomy to find articles in your field. Writing review & editing, Affiliations Formal analysis, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184479.t003. The Neolithic Revolutionalso referred to as the Agricultural Revolutionis thought to have begun about 12,000 years ago. Overall, a decrease after 2030 and disappearance after 2060 is expected. Population growth, economic development and urban migration have stimulated unprecedented demand for animal protein and with the global population approaching 10 billion, this hunger is expected to increase by up to 70 per cent by 2050 . Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. We estimate the current global extent of shifting cultivation and compare it to other current global mapping endeavors as well as results of literature searches. 70% of global freshwater withdrawals are used for agriculture 2. Solution: a. India is an agricultural country. Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). Conceptualization, Shifting cultivation (SC) is a traditional land-use system to ensure livelihood in the Amazon (Villa et al., 2020).The traditional SC have small areas (0.1-0.8 ha) and short cycles of agriculture (1-3 years) with high crop diversity followed by fallow periods of 2-7 years [Fig. Thirty-eight email addresses were no longer functional and 7 authors declined to participate for various reasons. Writing review & editing, Affiliation Livestock may be at risk, both directly from heat stress and indirectly from reduced quality of their food supply. Data curation, Solution Shifting Cultivation: Slash-and-burn cultivation is another name for shifting cultivation. An online questionnaire was designed and sent to these 270 authors in September 2015 using survey monkey. The five classes corresponded to the following rough ranges of area shares of shifting cultivation landscapes (currently cultivated fields plus all stages of fallows) within an entire one-degree cell: none: < 1%; very low: 19%; low: 1019%; moderate: 2039%; high: 40%. Panama, Guatemala) well into the 2000s. Formal analysis, However, we found that its occurrence in most one-degree cells, where it existed, was fairly limited, with roughly 85% of these cells showing occurrence levels below 20% (currently cultivated fields and all stages of fallows). In shifting cultivation method of agriculture an area of land is cleared off its vegetation and cultivated for a period of time and then abandoned. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors. Of the remaining 225 authors, 72 responded and 49 provided usable information (see S1 File). The negative effects of abusing shifting cultivation are devastating and far-reaching in degrading the environment and ecology of the affected region. Eutrophication is the process in which a water body becomes overly enriched with nutrients, leading to plentiful growth of simple plant life. Since there have been many controversies about the impact of jhum cultivation the study was done to analyse the current situation of the practice of shifting cultivation as perceived by the local people of Mokokchung village. This indicates that, despite the subjectivity involved on estimating the landscape level of occurrence of shifting cultivation in our classification, the method led to reproducible and accurate results. There was a bias towards responses from researchers who worked in Southeast Asia (see Fig 3); but this is also the world region where most research on shifting cultivation has been done, whereas Africa has the fewest studies and is clearly under-represented in light of the considerable occurrence of shifting cultivation there [17,44]. The colored pixels indicate clearings in different years between 2000 and 2014 as recorded in the GFC data set [8]. SCIplanet - Shifting Cultivation Generally, the two approximations of areas under shifting cultivation are in fairly good agreement, especially when considering that the large differences in the arid areas of northern Africa, southern Angola, and Zambia and the high-mountain areas of eastern Bolivia are largely explained by the fact that Butler included other, non-shifting forms of extensive smallholder agriculture and that shifting cultivation in these areas based on the climatic condition never could have been widespread. Besides the need to determine the effects of shifting cultivation on land usebased greenhouse gas emission scenarios, there are other important reasons for gaining a better understanding of change in shifting cultivation systems. This figure was elaborated by the first author using ArcGIS 10.4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184479.g003. However, the expert survey confirms that shifting cultivation has fully disappeared between the 1970s and the 2000s in various areas of mainland Southeast Asia, such as southern Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and China. - Borneo and Sulawesi: Shifting cultivation is expected to disappear sometime between 2030 and 2060. - Myanmar: Shifting cultivation is estimated to mostly disappear sometime between 2060 and 2090 if conflicts between union government and ethnic armed groups are resolved. (Fig 2A): the global distribution of the stratified sample of the 328 one-degree cells used in the validation data set. To assess the accuracy of our estimated occurrence levels of shifting cultivation on the landscape, this validation data was used to calculate the actual area shares of the 1/100 by 1/100 one-degree cells classified as having shifting cultivation in validation data for all 328 one degree samples cells. This figure was elaborated by the first author using ArcGIS 10.4. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0184479.g005. The data sources are not entirely clear, but the assessment seems to be based on a number of studies carried out between the end of the 19th century and the late 1950s, along with expert judgement. After eliminating papers that were not related to recent shifting cultivation in the tropics (e.g. 5. - West Africa (Sierra Leone, Liberia, Guinea, Cte dIvoire, Ghana): Shifting cultivation is anticipated to diminish rapidly by 2030 and to largely disappear by 2060 if peace is upheld and there is no major return of Ebola; but if conflicts resurface, shifting cultivation may persist well into the second half of this century. Based on an expert survey, we make a first attempt at estimating past trends as well as possible future trends in the global distribution of shifting cultivation until the end of the 21st century. Such areas are found in parts of Southeast Asia (e.g. By contrast, we expect that shifting cultivation will persist for a longer time in Africa, especially in Central Africa. At the regional scale, an assessment by Spencer [45] provides a slightly more differentiated picture of the presence of shifting cultivation practices in Asia. When the soil begins to turn infertile (usually after 3-5 years) the people move on. In addition, we used available very highresolution satellite imagery from Bing and Google (most images dating from the period between 2008 and 2015; visited between September and April 2015) in an ArcGIS Desktop 10.4 and QGIS environment to examine visually whether a given area for which the GFC data indicated a spatio-temporal pattern of small-scale clearings consistent with shifting cultivation, was indeed likely to be under shifting cultivation. There is a need to transform shifting cultivation to sustainable intensification. Using the data and approach described above, each one-degree cell was examined visually at various zoom levels (roughly 1:100000 but, if necessary, occasionally at larger scales) to determine whether it showed the very specific spatio-temporal signature of shifting cultivation (see Fig 1). While keeping in mind the inherent limitations of these predictions, we can identify a number of more specific patterns. For large parts of Southeast Asia, the survey results point towards that the current swift decrease in shifting cultivation continues, and that a large share of the area under shifting cultivation will have disappeared by 2030, and the remaining pockets are likely to be almost entirely gone by 2060.Moreover, the survey results indicate trends for some specific Asian countries: Humid tropical Africa is probably the region for which developments are most difficult to predict due to limited data. For example, data for Laos indicate between 2 and over 6 Mha, while more recent figures based on remote sensing (multi-temporal Landsat) for northern Laoswhere the largest share of shifting cultivation in the country is foundare 3.1 Mha [33] and 2.6 Mha [34]. Yes As the data we used (GFC as well as Bing and Google imagery) cover the period from 2000 to 2014 and 2015, respectively, our assessment of the current extent of shifting cultivation does not relate to any specific year. The history of shifting cultivation is as old as the history of agriculture itself. Most plants and animals live in areas with very specific climate conditions, such as temperature and rainfall patterns, that enable them to thrive. [17], contrasts with developments in other parts of Africa, where decreases and the disappearance of areas under shifting cultivation have dominated over the last two decades. Shifting cultivation remains widespread, despite decreases in its extent over the last four to five decades. We compared this result to Butlers (1980) binary (presence or absence) map of shifting cultivation, gridded into one-degree cells. While an area approximation of actual shifting cultivation landscapes based on our analysis is difficult due to the estimated and not measured shared of shifting cultivation of each one-degree cell we believe that, given the high accuracy of this estimation (see Table 2), a conservative estimate can nonetheless be derived by visually inspecting the cells and allocating reasonable shares of shifting cultivation landscape (currently cultivated fields plus all stages of fallows) to them as described in the methods section. (Fig 2DA) and (Fig 2E): The white line grid marks the 1/100 degree cells used as basic unit for the validation data. The evil effects of shifting cultivation are devastating and far reaching in degrading the environment and ecology of this region. This became particularly evident when Hurtt et al. While shifting cultivations signature on the landscape may be captured as a mixture or mosaic of agriculture and forest land cover classes, this alone does not suffice to indicate with certainty the presence of shifting cultivation. About half of tropical deforestation is commonly explained by the expansion of traditional agriculture (shifting cultivation). What is shifting cultivation? What are its disadvantages? - Vedantu Agricultural methane doesn't only come from animals, though. One of the most obvious consequences is the depletion of aquifers, river systems, and downstream ground water. Institute for the Study of Earth, Oceans, and Space, University of New Hampshire, Durham, United States of America, Roles
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